Building teamwork between marketing and sales

It goes without saying (at least I hope it does) that to be effective, the relationship between marketing and sales demands close cooperation. Yet even as the most critical of a company’s interactions, marketing and sales are often at each other’s backs, placing blame, demanding action, and generally acting worse toward one another than they do to the competition.

The metaphor I like to use to describe a well-functioning sales and marketing organization isn’t a Kumbaya campfire, but a relay race. In this example, marketing hands off sales tools and campaign leads, with sales taking the hand-off and running toward the finish line – the completed sale. Yet as simple as this example is, anyone familiar with track knows that the hand-off is the most difficult part of the race.

Before taking the hand-off, the runner ahead (sales) must start getting up to speed. The runner behind (marketing) therefore, needs to share plans and metrics so sales knows what to expect and can begin to prepare their customers, prospects, and accurately complete their  forecasts. Efficiencies are lost when these racers aren’t fully aware of where the other is on the track; that is, salespeople are accidentally or purposefully unaware of what marketing objectives are, when campaigns are running, and what to expect in terms of number and quality of leads.

Further, in relay races, there is only a set amount of track space allowed to make the transfer – racers must understand the distance each racer will run. In my example, if sales expects marketing to qualify leads further or marketing expects sales to follow-up on leads in a certain timeframe, the baton can be passed too soon or too late, outside the zone, resulting in missed sales opportunities.

Even when the runners are up to speed and the transfer is made, disconnects between objectives, targets, and priorities can cause our metaphorical baton to be dropped and take an organization out of the race altogether. Marketing is in charge of evaluating the market and strategizing initiatives, but always with the input of sales so common targets, messages, objectives and timing can be established. This needs to be done quarterly to not only stay aligned, but to evaluate what is and isn’t working.

Relays are the most team-intensive sport in track, and therefore are won only when every participant is not only performing at their best, but makes certain that they’ve passed and received the baton smoothly between team members. To do well, marketing and sales need to do their best individually. But to win, marketing and sales need to cooperate as a team.

3 marketing topics to school yourself on this fall.

Labor Day marks the second start of a new year, an opportunity, as with the one in January, for a fresh start and self-improvement. As marketers, it’s a good time to take stock of what we don’t know, in order to stay on top of the latest innovations in accountability, effectiveness, and customer satisfaction.

Social media. It may seem obvious, but the proliferation of platforms, broad use of them for customer interaction, and still-experimental state of the industry can result in huge opportunities for you or colossal blunders. Study up to learn from past mistakes and to prevent your own.

Content marketing. Understanding the changes in creating intelligent dialogue with customers is a larger change in the marketing landscape in the past several years than even social media, which has merely accelerated the process. Marketing as a provider not only of information but also of unbiased value is a sea-change and must understood to be properly executed.

Mobile marketing. There are more mobile internet users online than desktop users. Understanding the needs of the mobile user goes beyond device compatibility. Get ahead of your competition because companies that do not adapt to mobile will suffer the same fate of the latecomers to the internet in the 90s.

There are many others, including marketing automation, search engine optimization (Google makes sure you are out of date almost monthly), and alignment of social and search. 

What others are you studying up on?

Teaching entrepreneurship isn't impossible.

My son starts his junior year in high school Monday. His first class? “Entrepreneurship”. Given that he’ll have me, our clients, and associates as resources, I expect him to ace the class. Yet perhaps that is an unfortunate expectation, because I’m not sure entrepreneurism can be taught.  

I also taught a college course last year on Small Business Management. I conveyed useful information as required by the curriculum, and included important speakers, videos, and motivational information for added emphasis for important topics. The students seemed to benefit, I’m pretty sure I did a good job, and I’m pretty sure my son’s high school teacher will also. Still, some students in that class will never venture off on their own, some will fail and quit, and still others will succeed. One already has.

But what part of entrepreneurism can be taught, and of that, is it truly entrepreneurism? Or is it simply management? What are the building blocks of entrepreneurship versus the innate personality required to be knocked down seven times and still get up an eighth?

Can you be taught to have a comfort with risk?

No, but you can teach risk management, and offer advice on where others have faltered

Can you teach passion?

No, but you can promote sacrifice and self-reliance.

Can you teach leadership?

Absolutely, but it grows with experience.

Can you teach commitment?

No, but you can inspire and encourage.

The rest, perhaps, is tactics and processes. This is why mentors are so important to the entrepreneur. Mentors are as much about reviewing operational plans and go-to-market strategies as they are about being an example, and a source of inspiration and encouragement.

On the whole, I don’t think you can pluck anyone off the street and make them a confident entrepreneur, ‘Trading Places’ style. But those who have a natural inclination to go against the grain and rise above the noise can learn to be entrepreneurs, even if it can’t be taught. 

The 5 Most Important Marketing Spends for a Start-up

As I work with a number of start-up companies, I am often approached by these hungry entrepreneurs (and their investors) to help execute a demand generation campaign,largely in the 'lean marketing' or 'growth hacking' mode. However, there are a number of prerequisites I demand of prospective clients at early-stage start-ups. These prerequisites are fully marketing activities, but also have cross-functional utility because it helps young companies get a sense for themselves before promoting themselves to the outside.

1. Market and competitive research

Useful to finance, sales, and product development, gaining a full understanding of the industries and individuals (personas) that are in the target market is critical. Young companies should know their customers as well if not better than they know their own product or solution. The same goes for the competition – there is always competition, even where the product, niche, or industry is brand new.

2. Positioning strategy

The world of marketing is ruled by Venn Diagrams. Understand the similarities, differences, Unique Selling Proposition, potential black holes and growth opportunities in your market. Know the desired customer behavior and how slow or rapid adoption would reshape the market and your own assumptions.

3. Go to market planning

Plan the routes to market and go to market strategy for each channel; direct sales, online, partner, etcetera. I am always surprised at the number of companies (even large ones) seeking to promote their solution before they even fully understand how they will sell and fulfill orders. Really.

4. Branding and identity

In spite of the myriad number of self-proclaimed designers and fiverr designs out on the market, leveraging the knowledge and experience of a professional designer is critical to bring the above three investments to the public. A designer that understands your market, what you are trying to achieve, the emotional bond you want to create in a customer, how colors, typefaces, and imagery interact. Great marketing is easily undermined by an identity that doesn’t reflect the marketing message.

5. Inbound/content marketing strategy

Finally, the first stage, 'growth hacking' promotional, demand generation actions begin with the foundations of the content management strategy that drives initial value and interest among your target publics. As content management takes some time to spin up, this should be initiated as early as possible, and ideally prior to product release, in order to drive demand upon release.

Once these five prerequisites are established, then, and only then, should any shorter-term aggressive promotional lead generation activity be undertaken. Excepting perhaps the days of being featured on Oprah’s Favorite Things, there are no shortcuts to effective marketing and sustainable lead generation for a start-up, or for any established company.

Build a marketing plan using old school journalistic style

There are as many ways to write a marketing plan as there are marketers in the business. Ultimately, each has to answer six fundamental journalistic questions, that is, akin to the 5 Ws (and one H) taught in any undergrad journalism school:  WHO am I selling to? WHAT am I selling? WHERE will I sell it? WHEN will I sell it? WHY will they buy it? HOW will I reach my customer?

WHO you are selling to is your demographic and psychographic, who they are and what makes them tick. “Everyone” isn’t helpful. Even products that have nearly 100% saturation identify their customers and those customers’ unique reasons for buying.

WHAT you are selling is less obvious than simply naming the product. It encompasses the reason the product was created, the problem it was meant to solve.

WHERE you sell it is key to reaching the correct demographic, above. You can’t reach the middle class at Tiffany’s, you can’t reach the super-rich at Target. And you can’t reach anyone if the display and packaging fails to engage the shopper.

WHEN you sell a product is more than seasonality, it can also, and more often does, involve identifying the ‘compelling event’ that triggers a desire for the product. Experience, such as a burglary that precipitates a security system sale; information,  such as a health alert on the news the encourages a purchase of a supplement are important to understand.

WHY will customers buy it? What alternative do they have? What are the competitive, ‘substitution’ products? What do people do without your product? What benefit does only your product offer? This is oversimplifying a critical part of the plan, so take some time to really study current and desired consumer behavior.

HOW will you reach them? This is the last part of the puzzle – the tactics. The ads, the media, social outlets, PR, events. The marketing mix that makes customers aware of and interested in your product or service.

The format and style of the marketing plan is not important. As long as it addresses and honestly answers these critical questions, it will improve your chances for success exponentially. 

Tomorrow's lawsuits start here

I've written for years about the failure of the biggest companies failing in the most fundamental ways, like here, here, and here. 

And now there's this. East Carolina University Suing Cisco Systems Over Slogan ‘Tomorrow Starts Here'.

Simple due diligence. C'mon people. If you're gonna steal, don't steal from a client. And if you steal from a client, at least make sure it's a good slogan. This doesn't even pass the 'bakery and bedpans' test.

99% of readers think this is an awesome post.

Years ago as a graduate student at TCU, we were taught in Statistics class to poke holes in the methodology and analysis of reporting on statistics. It was treated as a sort of debate based on metrics and not opinion; their use, misuse, and abuse. We were taught to look carefully at sources, graphical representation, equivalent measurements, causality, sample size, and so forth. Ever since then, I've been quick to criticize statistics like a middle-school English teacher picks out typos.

As marketers, we are among the first to abuse statistics in our favor, and even as consumers have more information at their finger tips, so too do they have mis-information. Even today, buyer beware is the watchword.

Yet as we enter a political season, the stakes are even higher and we must think and vote with care. This recent article in The Atlantic illustrates some more egregious info-graphic lies used to increase interest and click through rates to study sponsors, and advertisers.

We are a graphical, headline-loving, sound-bite oriented culture. Yet it takes only, on average, 12% more time to learn the truth behind the hyperbole.

Okay. I just made that up.

Extreme Couponing: Mobile Shoppers and the New Face of Mobile Couponing

In this article, my friend and colleague Brian Morrison, President at Ipsh!, the mobile marketing agency of Dallas' The Marketing Arm (I think that makes him a thumb) discusses how mobility, couponing, and a weak economy are combining to create an exceptional opportunity for mobile marketers to drive more business.

Mobile Shoppers and the New Face of Mobile Couponing

Fear itself.

Only a few times in my career have I had to address fear as a key obstacle to a new product introduction.

Of course, fear is ever-present in doing or buying anything new, but not often is it in the top three. And rarely fear, as such. In marketing, that is, in encouraging a buying decision, fear is more often wrapped in something less... well, absolute. Uncertainty, not fear. Caution, not fear. Inertia, not fear.

Fear is more real, more certain, and more an obstacle than any other faced by marketers. Fear as represented by the perceived lack of control. A lack of control is never overcome in the real sense, but only mitigated through trust.

Trust in turn is encouraged through understanding, established with a relationship, built through consistency, preserved through responsiveness, and confirmed through repetition - selling to and buying of - a loyal customer.

That is nothing new, as although it takes longer to overcome, the fear obstacle is addressed by simply doing what we as marketers know we ought to be doing all along... understand our market, develop a relationship with them, deliver products and services with consistent quality, respond quickly and appropriately to problems and questions, ... and repeat. Other than that, it is, ironically, out of our control how quickly we can make customers feel sufficiently in control to try something new.

So when management, sales, or product grow concerned that uptake of a new product or service is slower than predicted, you'll know that all things being equal, simply staying on track and by doing the right things right, it will happen in time.

Comfort them with FDR's words: "The only thing we have to fear, is fear itself."

Top 10 Branding Miscues of 2010... and three more.

Advertising Age magazine, a leading trade publication for the industry, recently published their list of the top 10 marketing and branding miscues of 2010.

Surprisingly, this little bit of breezy popcorn journalism skipped what would have been my #1: The BP Gulf disasater. A bigger marketing disaster would be hard to fathom, as retail gas outlets were boycotted and the PR got worse and worse.

My #2 missed the list too; the inability to 'sell' Obamacare to the American public by the administration. Politics aside, for a man who was elected to 'change', I've seen little of it, particularly given a democratic congress and, in Pelosi, a house speaker able to deflect slings and arrows.

My #3 missed as well... the tarring the TSA was unable to adequately address. There is no depth to the philosophy behnd the mission of the TSA... just a shallow defense that whatever they do must be right because there have been 'no successful domestic attacks' since 2001. That's a weak foundation that will crumble when something, inevitably perhaps, does slip through the cracks.

What are your ideas of the worst marketing and branding miscues of 2010?

Can I hear an Amen?

So, the other day I was thinking about an upcoming sales meeting and product launch plan. My attention turned to sales enablement, branding, and the difficulty in getting salespeople just as fired up as, say, the engineers are, over the latest incarnation of their product. "C'mon, guys, our new AXT4000 Johnson Rod has four times as much monkey oil as the competitor's Johnson Rod!"

Yeah, well, I'm not excited either. And I write this stuff.

So who is excited? Who is so danged fired up that they'd get dressed to the nines and go door to door during their free time to talk to desperate housewives? Who's so convinced of the value of their product that they'd tote their entire families and a forest worth of pamphlets with them to be certain everyone had a chance to share their enthusiasm, including their kids? Who's so completely convinced of the superiority of their value statement that they'd give up everything to take two years to do nothing but sell, sell, sell?

Girl Scouts, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormon Missionaries, respectively.

For me I marvel at their commitment even as I brush them off. (I am a salty snack favoring Methodist so thanks, but I'm covered.) When was the last time you encountered a salesperson at your company with the earnestness of a Girl Scout, the persistence of a Witness, or the commitment of a Mormon? Before you complain, maybe you should start with a mirror.

I understand that in technology sales as in other industries, we aren't talking about salvation and deep set belief systems. But that's the point, right? Perhaps we need to approach sales enablement with the fervor of a Chautauqua preacher converting the heathen masses. When was the last time YOU got excited the latest version of software or throughput on a server? And if not, why not?

As you prepare to talk to salespeople about a new product, service, or feature, first answer for them the question they must answer all the time: "Who are you and why should I care?" If you can't answer that with the enthusiasm of an itinerant preacher, you can't expect it from your congregation of salespeople, either.

Even if you threaten their eternal soul.

The Oldest Profession

In this excellent Advertising Age op-ed by Les Marguiles, he addresses the critical importance of the agency-client relationship, or increasingly, the lack of one.

I can boil my take on the piece by suggesting that those marketers who allow their companies to commoditize service companies' efforts deserve what they get in the shoddy product returned from those desperate firms who won a project based on costs and terms alone - and therefore see no long term opportunity with the client.

Conversely, and importantly, those service providers – agencies, consultants, what have you – who accept that their work can be commoditized and are therefore willing to forego basic standards of quality of service, creative, and responsiveness also deserve what they get from clients who take that unique value for granted.

I remind my small agency colleagues of the following exchange, often attributed to Winston Churchill:

Churchill: Madam, would you sleep with me for five million pounds?
Socialite: My goodness, Mr. Churchill… Well, I suppose… we would have to discuss terms, of course…
Churchill: Would you sleep with me for five pounds?
Socialite: Mr. Churchill, what kind of woman do you think I am?!
Churchill: Madam, we’ve already established that. Now we are just negotiating the price.

Why you need to be .co dependent

I urge you to .co-operate on this.

Right after you finish reading this blog entry, go to your domain host and purchase your company's URL ‘.co’ domain.

As of today, you can register .co just as you have .com, .net, or .org, and other more obscure ones, such as .me or .name

It will cost you under $30/year but save you headaches. I predict .co will be a popular domain because: a, outside the US, web users already are used to typing .co prior to their country code (eg, .co.uk, for the Brits, .co.nz for the Kiwis); b, it’s a letter short of .com, which is great for typo trolling sites, and of course, c, in the states, it is a suffix for legal companies.

Yes, I might be wrong about the eventual land rush for the .co domain. If so, you’re out $30. If I’m right, you could pay thousands later. I say that’s pretty good insurance.

That’s it. Just this timely advice. No snarky comments, no opinion, no sermonizing. Mostly because I can't, off hand, come up with a good pun using '.co'. If you have one, post it in the comments (the .co mments).

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• Dot .CO Domains Are Hot (mwd.com)

The price is falling! The price is falling!

Just a note for the editors of marketing pubs out there: "how to market in a sagging economy" articles have been done. To death. Okay, we get it. Preaching to the choir here. Move on.

Its a valid subject, but most of these articles are promotion-oriented. What hasn't been discussed as much is the role of price strategy in a sagging economy, and generally. This especially occurs to me today because of a current client project, where pricing strategy is the current key gating concern prior to product launch.

Obvious Secret #1: Pricing strategy, especially in a weak economic environment, has little to do with, well, price.

Even in the best of times, great products, great promotions, clever ads and a loyal base can be undone by a misguided or misapplied pricing strategy. This is because left to their own devices, finance and sales executives will see sagging demand as a numbers issue and not a brand issue. Plus, it is expedient to react instinctively with a red pen (cutting prices) when profits shrink and sales falter.

Bad plan.

Unstudied discounts are not as easily undone tomorrow as they are done today. Price cuts are a short term solution to a larger, longer term issue; that is, the product hasn't established the brand position to maintain margin in a discount environment. Understand that price cuts are welcomed by consumers but always create subtle dissonance - an inability on the part of the consumer to properly relate price to value, so when the market returns upward, as it always does, this results in a nearly Sisyphean effort to re-establish a brand position held prior to the discount. Pricing is not a cost issue - it is a value issue.

Understand the way customers make buying decisions and become far more visible, and more efficient, in delivering on these criteria; this will always be more effective in building recession-proof brands. This is because pricing is a long-term strategy, not a short term tool. When the economy sours, there are other levers to pull - operating costs, added value, extended hours, free upgrades. Think about supplier pricing and work new billing models to manage cash flow. Invest in money-saving IT investments such as Unified Communications and collaboration products. Reevaluate your market position and consider new marketing initiatives to go after markets competitors might have recently abandoned. Fire some costly customers. Adjust invoicing offers and procedures to improve cash flow and reduce defaults. These tools and others are manipulated in good times and bad with far greater flexibility than price, which can only move in two directions: up, or down.

Its easy to be Chicken Little and think in blocks of fiscal-quarter-bound panic over a current fiscal situation, but creating and applying the right principles for pricing allows for decisions that over time not only weather current storms, but position a company for consistent growth over the long haul.

Using Context in Creative - Part Two

As with my last post on the subject, here are excellent examples of understanding and leveraging the nature of the media when developing creative. Courtesy of Alltop.

Do The Math

A common though underutilized truism in marketing is to quantify your claims whenever and wherever possible.

'Biggest', 'Better', Fastest', 'Smallest', 'Cheapest' are nice claims but of little* value. Only slightly better are percentages, useful in any circumstance when the real numbers are small to begin with ($0.04 is a penny less than $0.05, but it is also fully 20% less)

I was reminded of this point by a number** of excellent recent blog entries that are worth a read:

How to Make Your Data Matter, Fast Company, by Dan and Chip Heath - Notable insight: "...an $800 billion stimulus works out to be the rough equivalent of seven weeks' income for an American household. Is that worth it? Seven weeks' worth of work to stave off a potential depression. Or maybe you're appalled. Regardless, we can finally have a real argument, because we have a better idea of what we're arguing about."

How Comedians Clarify Brain-fuzzing Stats, again, Fast Company, by Dan Macsai - Notable Insight: "...If Rod Blagojevich winds up in jail, four of the last eight Illinois governors will have served time. Did you know -- and this is true -- that only 48% of the people who commit murder end up in jail? You are more likely to end up in jail if you become the governor of Illinois than if you become a murderer. Make the smart choice, kids. (Jon Stewart)"

What Does A Trillion Dollars Look Like?, courtesy of cnbc.com - Notable insight: "With the largest market cap among U.S. companies, Exxon Mobil’s value of publicly traded shares is over $345 billion (as of 3/31/09). If this amount was denominated in $100 bills, the block of Benjamins covering the area of a standard American football field would stack to a height of about 28.7 feet."

Ultimately if your numbers are impressive or modest, whole numbers or percentages, what matters is that your audience understands them and relates to them in clear terms that mean something to them.

(*specifically, 86% less value, that is.)
(** exactly three)

How much green is there in green?

In a recent price sensitivity analysis conducted by Rockbridge Research, it was discovered that most consumers would purchase a product indicated as 'green' (environmentally friendly) over a 'regular' product of the same type, but only if they were the same price. The study concluded that overall, "...as the green product’s price increases, consumers’ inclination towards it decreases."

Not surprisingly, specific audience categories offering unique attitudes toward the 'green movement' differ in the value they place on such products. Six distinct consumer groups within the overall adult consumer population were identified, with “Green Tech Leaders” willing to pay far more for a green certified product, while “Anti-Greens” are not willing to pay much more at all. That alone is interesting as it still indicates a willingness to perhaps consider the positive social implications of buying green even to those who do not value it themselves. This indicates that green product attributes are valuable, but not widespread enough to accommodate anything but a modest price adjustment.

From a share prospective, a green alternative may move the needle. From a margin perspective, this study indicates that their isn't yet much green in being green.

To learn more about Rockbridge’s Green Technology Segmentation, click here.

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• Nearly all "Eco" Product Claims Are Misleading [Greenwashing] (consumerist.com)

Shackin' up

Quick Quiz: When asked why RadioShack decided to rebrand itself "The Shack", CMO Lee Applbaum stated it was because (choose just one!):

1. We think "shack" conjures up many positive store images.

2. Some customers and the investor community refers to us as "The Shack" already.

3. We can't afford the real Shaq as a spokesperson, and he's in Cleveland now anyhow.

4. Basic research could have told us that "The Shack" is actually a popular Christian novel regarding the anguish of a parent over the rape and murder of his daughter. Oh, well.

5. Because... "The (Love) Shack is a little ol' place where we can get together! (Don't forget your jukebox money!)"


The answer is #2, although any of the answers is equally bad, and equally plausible.

That's right. RadioShack's most avid customers and "the investor community" (really? that's their target with this campaign?) already refer to the company (despairingly, perhaps?) as The Shack, so they figured they'd just co-op the term as their own in a desperate grab to leverage, and therefore destroy, any credible independent brand affinity.

Besides, marketing theory aside, every middle school kid in America already knows that giving yourself a nickname is just lame.

Noisy launches

Here's something startling obvious that often gets lost in the noise of an exciting product launch:

The product is the thing.

The company is not the thing. (An exception perhaps is Apple - which uses its powerful corporate brand to great effect.)

The distribution channel is not the thing. (Your distributors may incorrectly argue the point, especially VARs.)

And most certainly, the ad is not the thing. (Your agency's creatives may disagree, especially if the ads are spotlighted in an article like this one in Advertising Age.

Once you go down the path of suggesting that a "creepy" and "unsettling" advertisement is "doing its job" because people are talking about the advertisement (and not the product per se) you can quickly find yourself sliding down a slippery slope trying to quantify 'mindshare' and 'visibility'.

To be certain, if the ads are effective, they'll be talked about... but more importantly, so will the product. A truly effective advertisement quickly steps back and allows the product to take the spotlight.

After all, no one wants to hear the announcer keep talking once the band takes the stage.

The Rules Of Business Still Apply

Remember the dot-com days? When profits didn’t matter, and the new currency was ‘click-thrus’ and ‘page views’? The bubble was built by the general public’s fascination with this new thing, ‘the Internet’, and e-commerce companies along with their telecom counterparts (installing ever-greater capacity) rode the bubble toward a sudden and inevitable burst.

Social Media is beginning its shakeout. MySpace is struggling. YouTube is gaining traction as watching video online becomes a standard media, and Facebook is seeing continued growth, but much of it outside the U.S. as this market becomes saturated and curious Boomers drop off the site. LinkedIn integrates a number of useful applications and solidifies its position as a professional’s social media rolodex.

Now comes Twitter, off its highs of the CNN / Ashton battle for a million followers, a month after an Oprah mention, a curiousity to most and not yet monetized. Studies have indicated that most new visitors stop visiting after a month, and now a report that May’s growth on Twitter was anemic, although, importantly, the time spent on the site (by its active members) grew substantially.

So what’s next for Twitter? I’m not certain, but it is critical to recognize that Twitter’s celebrity users are essentially spokespeople and pitchmen for the site, not a business model in and of themselves. According to the rules of business where a company has an established and vocal ‘tribe’ of followers in its niche, the focus should be to provide value to its most loyal customers (visitors). This may mean perhaps, more integration with the hordes of third-party Twitter applications being developed, recognizing its role not as an interactive medium but a broadcast medium and provide services accordingly, and determine the best way to monetize the platform without alienating a customer base that is not used to be ‘pitched’ with advertising. It is then that Twitter can begin to expand and regain interest among businesses and individuals who will leverage the platform and applications using methods tested and proven by the early adopters.

‘The Oprah Effect’ will only get you to the lip of Geoffrey Moore’s chasm. The rules of business still apply as Twitter attempts to cross it.

Full disclosure: www.twitter.com/jimgardner